GreyMatters
Educational articles, BetterBrain resources, latest in brain health, and news about us. Written for you, with expertise (and love).
Dietary Defenders: Prebiotic Fibers in Alzheimer's Prevention
As Alzheimer's disease continues to impact millions globally, the scientific community is increasingly focusing on the gut-brain axis. This complex communication network, which links the gastrointestinal tract and the brain, could play a major role in preventing cognitive decline. Recent discoveries1 have shown that gut microbiota might affect everything from brain development to behavior to disease states, and researchers are starting to explore how the gut-brain axis can influence dementia risk.
Exploratory study: A closer look at fiber's impact on aging brains
The School of Life Course & Population Sciences at King’s College London spearheaded a pivotal double-blind study2 (the same type of study as used for clinical trials) with participants over 60 years old. Their research aimed to uncover the cognitive effects of consuming prebiotic fibers compared to a placebo.
Fiber fuels cognitive fortitude
Like any organism, the components making up the gut microbiome need food to survive. One source of nutrients for them is prebiotic fibers, such as inulin and fructooligosaccharides (FOS), both of which were the focus of the King’s College study. The researchers found that participants who took prebiotic supplements had more of one species of healthy bacteria called Bifidobacterium in their gut. This species has previously been linked to better cognitive performance, and indeed the participants who took supplements showed improved cognitive function scores through the same memory tests that are used as an early indicator of Alzheimer’s disease.
Why is this happening?
The composition of the gut microbiome has drastically changed over human history. Advances in agriculture, industrialization and globalization may have caused a decrease in gut microbial diversity, which has been associated with worse health outcomes. In particular, a review of multiple studies1 suggests that changes in the microbiome can lead to behavioral changes. In another study3 comparing 25 patients diagnosed with Alheimer’s disease to 25 healthy individuals, those with Alzheimer’s were found to have reduced gut microbial diversity.
Keeping an eye on your intake
Let’s get specific. Women should aim to consume 21-25g of fiber per day. Men should aim for 30-38g4. Here is a list of some common fiber-dense foods to consider adding into your diet.
A promising path to cognitive health
Emerging evidence connecting dietary habits, gut microbiota, and brain function highlights a novel approach to combat Alzheimer’s disease. The gut-brain axis is still a new area of research - there is much we don’t know, and many researchers around the world are investigating the different ways in which the microbiome influences our brain health. Such studies not only pave the way for innovative therapeutic avenues but also emphasize the profound impact our diet can have on mental and overall health.
Putting the science in action
- Eat enough fiber each day to make sure you are nourishing your gut microbiome. Women should strive for 21-25g daily, while men should aim for 30-38g.
- Learn more about the importance of your gut health on your brain and body through the Peter Attia Drive podcast.some text
- Episode #215 goes in-depth on the GI system - skip to 34:30 for ways in which the gut and brain communicate, and to 1:55:00 for ways to promote your gut microbiome using your nutrition.
- Episode #283 discusses the microbiome specifically - learn more about the importance of fiber at 38:30 and about the gut-brain axis at 50:15.
Metabolic Syndrome as a Gateway to Dementia
It’s a well-known fact that Alzheimer’s disease is closely linked to metabolic health, to the point that some experts have begun to refer to it as Type III Diabetes. But what many people don’t know is that poor metabolic health is a strong risk factor for dementia long before it progresses to diabetes, even for people without a family history.
Decoding metabolic syndrome
Before you get diagnosed with diabetes, your body goes through a number of changes. Cells in your body become desensitized to insulin, which usually tells them to absorb sugar from your bloodstream. This results in chronically elevated blood sugar and in turn starts causing problems for your heart, liver, brain, and other organs. This pre-diabetic phase is called metabolic syndrome, and it affects ~25% of adults worldwide, including 40% adults aged 60+ in the U.S. Most of them do not know that metabolic syndrome is a health risk.
Metabolic syndrome is diagnosed when an individual has three or more of the following:
- High triglycerides (≥150 mg/dL)
- Elevated blood pressure (≥130 mmHg systolic or ≥85 mmHg diastolic) OR use of antihypertensive medication
- High fasting glucose (≥100 mg/dL OR use of glucose lowering medications)
- Low HDL cholesterol (<40 mg/dL in men; <50 mg/dL in women OR use of lipid-modifying medication)
- Abdominal obesity (waist circumference ≥102 cm for men and ≥88 cm for women)
It’s worth noting that hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), a common marker for diabetes, does not feature on this list. Although a doctor won’t use A1c to diagnose metabolic syndrome, it’s still an important marker to keep track of your metabolic health.
Connecting metabolic syndrome to brain health
A large retrospective study1 analyzed data from 175,000 participants over a period of 15 years. Participants were aged 60+ and represented a variety of sociodemographic, lifestyle, and genetic backgrounds. With regards to the metabolic syndrome diagnosis criteria listed above, the study found that:
- Having three conditions increases dementia risk 12%
- Having four to five conditions is associated with an even stronger risk
- The link between metabolic syndrome and dementia is particularly strong in individuals who do not carry the APOE ε4 allele (typically, these are individuals with a lower risk of dementia)
Taking action
The first step is to know where you stand. It’s important to establish a baseline by measuring metabolic markers in your blood and potentially using a continuous glucose monitor (CGM) to see how your blood sugar reacts to your daily habits. This will help you make an informed decision on how to approach your metabolic health.
Metabolic health is strongly tied to your lifestyle - particularly your diet, physical activity, and sleep. There’s also several different drugs, like statins or ACE inhibitors, available to help manage symptoms. However, this post isn’t meant to serve as a meal plan or exercise sheet. Instead, we’ve put together a list of hacks that we think can make a difference even if you haven’t fully optimized your health.
- Drink a tablespoon of vinegar ~20 minutes before a meal. This helps avoid spikes in your blood sugar.
- Go for a walk after meals, especially if those meals are heavy on carbs (e.g., pasta, potatoes, bread). This helps your muscles absorb glucose more efficiently.
- Perform at least 10m of vigorous exercise per day. Raising your heart rate (e.g., through a short HIIT session) helps boost your insulin sensitivity, which keeps blood sugar low.some text
- Exercise is most effective at reducing blood sugar spikes when done within an hour before or after a meal
- Eat your carbs last. Start your meal by eating vegetables (which are high in fiber), then eating proteins and fats, and finally moving to carbs. This helps slow the absorption of sugar into your bloodstream, and in turn reduce sugar spikes.
Small steps add up
Although the hacks mentioned above aren’t meant to replace a healthy lifestyle, they can help you make an immediate improvement in your metabolic health and kickstart your dementia prevention efforts. Remember - working on your metabolic health isn’t just about preventing diabetes, it’s about safeguarding your cognitive health.
Actions to consider
- Measure your metabolic markers. Some of these you may get on your annual physical (e.g., HbA1c, HDL-C, LDL-C, glucose, triglycerides, insulin). Others are less common (e.g., Lp(a), ApoB). Most importantly, don’t settle for just ok. These markers are worth optimizing. All the tests mentioned above are part of the 50+ biomarkers tested during your BetterBrain Essentials blood draw.
- Consider using a CGM to get a more accurate view of how your body processes sugar. Using a CGM, you can observe the effects of what you eat and your lifestyle on your blood sugar in real time, which can help inform the daily choices you make. We love the Dexcom G7, which may be challenging to buy over-the-counter but can be bought for cheaper through Signos.
- Learn more about homocysteine on the Peter Attia Drive podcast #252. This episode covers a wide variety of topics related to brain health, and links many different risks and possible interventions to metabolic health.
Harnessing Heart Rate Variability for Brain Health
The intricate dance between our heart rate and brain function is more influential than we might think. Recent studies reveal that heart rate variability (HRV)—the measure of variations between individual heartbeats—affects our brain health, decision-making abilities, and even our emotional regulation. HRV is a physiological metric that we can train ourselves to improve, and its connections to the brain make HRV training a promising technique for dementia prevention and enhancing cognitive function.
Understanding the Heart-Brain Connection:
While your heart rate is the average number of beats per minute, HRV is the difference in length between individual heartbeats.
HRV is not just a measure of heart health - it reflects the health and balance of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which is responsible for involuntary body functions. In particular, HRV serves as a key indicator of the interaction between the two components of the ANS: the sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest) nervous systems. Interestingly, there is a two-way feedback system between these nervous systems and the heart. The signals from the sympathetic and parasympathetic influence heart rate, and heart rate regulates the balance of these two systems. By exerting an influence on the ANS, heart rate variability helps regulate emotions and stress responses. In general, higher HRV is associated with better control over decision-making processes, emotional responses, anxiety, and social behaviors1.
Booting your HRV
Common HRV training protocols call for biofeedback, which is a fancy way of saying you need a sensor to measure your heart rate variability so you can improve it. HRV training involves guided exercises such as paced breathing while looking at real-time heart rate data to learn to consciously control heart rate variability. This is what makes it different from techniques like yoga or meditation - their focus is commonly to achieve a balanced state, whereas the goal of HRV training is to modulate physiological responses.
This technique not only promotes a balanced state but also has long-lasting effects on both mental and physical health. Thanks to the heart-brain connection, HRV training leads to improved emotional regulation and stress management. Although different training regimens exist, just five minutes of HRV training twice a day can significantly enhance control over the heart and reduce anxiety levels during stressful periods2. Critically, the benefits of HRV training extend far beyond mood and feeling: they also correlate with enhanced executive functions like planning, problem-solving, and resisting unhealthy impulses1. In fact, the benefits of this training can persist, with improvements seen even 12 weeks after stopping the training1.
Tying back to dementia
Thanks to its influence on stress response, cognitive function, healthy behaviors, and cardiac health, it’s no surprise that higher HRV is associated with stronger resilience against cognitive decline2,3. Since the simple daily practice of HRV biofeedback training can improve your HRV, we can think of it as a valuable tool to help delay the onset and progression of dementia. It's a clear testament to the power of our bodies' interconnected systems, and a reminder that taking care of our heart is as much about our mind.
Where to start with HRV training
- Choose a tracking device: the first step is to make sure you have the right equipment to measure your heart rate variability. Because you are measuring the time between individual heartbeats, you need a particularly sensitive device. Although some common wearables like the Apple watch or Whoop claim to measure HRV, it’s better to opt for a specialized chest strap like the Polar H10 which can connect to your other wearables.
- Visualize your data: once you have a solid device, use an app like Elite HRV or Welltory (both of which have a free version available) so that you can visualize your HRV in real time. These apps also come with a wealth of additional insights that can help you fine tune your training.
- Start training: you can find guided training sessions either through apps like Elite HRV or through online courses provided by organizations like the HeartMath Institute. YouTube also has a number of guided HRV routines you can try, such as this one from the Huberman Lab show.
- Learn more: The Peter Attia Drive podcast has an episode that dives deep into HRV so you can learn more about how it works and how it can help you.
Fighting Dementia with CBT: A proactive approach
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) has long been recognized as a powerful tool in managing mental health disorders, but its potential role in preventing dementia is only beginning to be appreciated1,2. There are two ways that CBT can help. First, CBT is a powerful tool which can combat anxiety, depression, and other mental health disorders, which increase the risk of dementia3,4. Second, CBT can be used to facilitate habit change - that is to say, help users adopt behaviors which promote brain health.
How does CBT work?
CBT is a structured form of psychotherapy that relies on the principle of identifying and changing certain thought patterns and behaviors. The underlying principle is that the brain is “plastic” or flexible throughout life, which means that we can shape the connections our brain makes. The therapy is collaborative, with the client and therapist working together to set goals and practice new skills. The specifics of a CBT session will vary depending on the needs of each individual, but sessions generally involve recognizing distorted thinking, challenging irrational beliefs, and developing healthier responses. CBT also encourages behavioral changes by gradually facing fears or engaging in positive activities.
CBT in Alzheimer’s prevention
Combating mental illness
Your mental health is closely linked to your brain health. Depression, anxiety, and other disorders can actually increase inflammatory stress in your brain and disrupt your cognitive function. There are several different approaches to treating mental illness, and CBT happens to be highly effective for some people.
Forming healthy habits
Much of dementia prevention relies on addressing known lifestyle risk factors, things like physical inactivity, poor diet, diabetes, and high blood pressure. Forming and maintaining healthy habits can feel challenging, but CBT can help facilitate behavior change and keep you on the right track.
Common CBT principles
Because CBT is a tool, many of its principles apply just as well to managing mental health as to improving lifestyle habits. Common techniques include:
- Awareness and Identification: CBT begins with helping individuals become more aware of their current state. What situations or thoughts trigger a negative cascade? Which of my habits aren’t the healthiest?
- Cognitive Restructuring: This is a fancy way of saying challenging negative thoughts. By examining negative emotions and thoughts, individuals can start to think about them objectively. For mental health, this can be changing “something catastrophic will happen” to “I can take on this challenge.” For habit formation, this may be replacing "changing my diet won’t make a difference" with "every healthy meal contributes to my resilience."
- Behavioral Experiments: CBT employs behavioral experiments to challenge negative beliefs and test out new behaviors in a controlled manner. This may look like gradually facing a feared situation, engaging in activities that carry a sense of accomplishment, or starting to exercise with 10-minute daily walks. The purpose here is to gain confidence and reinforce the challenge to negative thoughts with real-life actions.
- Goal Setting: Together with a therapist, individuals set specific, achievable goals related to their needs. These may be thing like developing problem-solving skills to improve their sense of control, or things like increasing weekly physical exertion. The most important thing is for these goals to feel realistic and manageable.
- Reinforcement: Positive changes are reinforced through self-monitoring and resilience techniques. Tracking change over time helps establish a feedback loop where improvement becomes a natural motivator, while practical skills for managing setbacks help sustain long-term behavior change.
By systematically working through these steps, CBT provides individuals with the tools and confidence to implement and sustain changes - many of which contribute to preventing dementia.
A strong tool for prevention
It’s important to recognize that CBT isn’t a silver bullet - it’s a tool that’s helped millions of people, and it requires conscious work to implement. With that said, the potential of CBT in preventing Alzheimer’s is vast. It not only helps address mental illness, but also incorporates lifestyle changes that tackle the physiological underpinnings of dementia. Implementing CBT strategies that promote healthy aging could be key in reducing the burden of dementia, emphasizing prevention over treatment and maintaining cognitive vitality well into the later years of life.
Resources on finding CBT providers
If you are interested in trying CBT, there’s several ways to get started.
- Online directories and telehealth platforms can help you find a professional to work with. You can often find therapists through your insurance plan or your employee benefits, or through listing websites like Zocdoc or Psychology Today. You can also look on telehealth platforms like Talkspace or Betterhelp, though not all of these accept insurance.
- Community health centers often also provide CBT services. These are typically available at reduced rates, and focus primarily on mental health.
- Books can help you learn more about CBT and its practice. Feeling Great: The revolutionary new treatment for depression and anxiety is a widely praised book by Dr. David Burns, a psychiatrist and professor of Psychiatry at Stanford.
Clearing the Air: How Pollution Influences Alzheimer's Risk
When you think of air pollution, respiratory disease is usually the first thing to come to mind. However, recent findings from the Emory Healthy Brain Study1 has begun to show that long-term exposure to tiny particles called PM2.5 has been associated with the accumulation of amyloid plaques in the brain, which is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease. While this doesn't prove that PM2.5 exposure leads to Alzheimer's, it suggests a potentially elevated risk, especially among those exposed to poor quality air over longer periods of time.
Air quality is typically measured by the amount of specific pollutants in the air. The Emory Healthy Brain Study looked at a type of pollutant called PM2.5, which is fine particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2.5 micrometers (about 30 times smaller than a human hair). These particles are so fine they can bypass the body's airway defenses and enter the bloodstream. Common sources of PM2.5 include vehicle emissions, industrial combustion, and natural occurrences like wildfires. Because the particles can enter the bloodstream, they can cause health issues that go beyond simple respiratory irritation, potentially affecting brain health and contributing to cognitive decline.
Key Findings from the Study
- Increased PM2.5 exposure is associated with worse results on Alzheimer’s pathology biomarkers: The study indicated that higher levels of PM2.5 exposure over one and three years are associated with lower concentrations of amyloid-beta 42 (Aβ42) in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Aβ42 is a biomarker whose decreased levels suggest an accumulation of amyloid plaques in the brain, which is a hallmark of Alzheimer’s dementia.
- Specific Focus on Traffic-Related PM2.5: While the study looked at both ambient (general environmental) and traffic-related PM2.5, the findings were particularly noteworthy for ambient PM2.5. This suggests that while traffic contributes significantly to PM2.5 levels, other sources of pollution also play a crucial role in influencing Alzheimer’s disease biomarkers.
- Implications for Alzheimer’s Risk: The research underscores that even PM2.5 below levels currently considered risky by environmental standards, there is a tangible increase in the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease. This calls for a reassessment of what is considered “safe” exposure to PM2.5, particularly for populations at risk of Alzheimer’s.
Reducing Exposure
Individuals living in high pollution areas can reduce their exposure by:
- Using air purifiers at home
- Avoiding outdoor activities when pollution levels are high
- Supporting clean air initiatives aimed at reducing emissions
Conclusion
The findings from Emory University’s research are a vital addition to our understanding of environmental factors in Alzheimer’s disease risk. They not only highlight the need for stricter air pollution controls but also suggest that everyday actions to reduce exposure to PM2.5 could be a feasible strategy for Alzheimer's prevention. As we continue to uncover more about the impact of our environment on health, it becomes increasingly clear that tackling air pollution is not just about preserving our planet—it's also about protecting our minds.
Saunas and Alzheimer's: Hot Topic or Just Hot Air?
For centuries, saunas have been lauded for their supposed health benefits, from improved cardiovascular function to detoxification. The recent trends around longevity seem to have revitalized the use of saunas, now considered a popular "health hack". But could spending time in these heated chambers also benefit your brain? Recent research suggests that sauna use might indeed play a role in mitigating the risk of Alzheimer's disease. In this article, we'll explore the scientific evidence behind this claim and consider how sauna use may impact your brain health.
The Connection Between Saunas and Alzheimer's Disease
The Finnish Study
A study from Finland has brought attention to the potential benefits of saunas for brain health. According to the 2,315 person study1, men who used a sauna 4-7 times a week showed a 65% reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease compared to those who used it once a week. Although the study mainly focused on men and thus requires further exploration for generalization, the findings are promising - 65% is a staggering number. If true, this would imply we could cut Alzheimer's prevalence from 6 million to 2 million in the US if only everyone used the sauna daily!
The Underlying Mechanisms
Scientists have proposed several mechanisms through which saunas may benefit the brain. One suggestion is that saunas can significantly improve sleep quality and time in deep sleep, which improves the brain's ability to clear toxic proteins. Moreover, heat stress activates heat shock proteins that can repair damaged proteins, which may play a role in neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's. Lastly, saunas may improve various markers of vascular function, such as blood pressure and blood circulation, known risk factors for Alzheimer's.
Caveats and Considerations
First, the impact was more muted for those who used the sauna only 2-3 times a week (~22% risk reduction). Additionally, while the Finnish study shows a correlation, and certainly attempted to control for relevant variables, it is always very challenging to prove causation in retrospective studies.
Conclusion
The notion that saunas could "incinerate" your Alzheimer's risk is captivating, they should not be viewed as a standalone solution. While promising studies hint at a beneficial correlation, saunas are not a guaranteed prevention method for Alzheimer's. However, given their other health benefits and the intriguing data suggesting a potential role in brain health, saunas could be a worthwhile addition to your wellness routine. Plus, who doesn't enjoy an intense sauna session followed by a cold plunge or shower?
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Visceral Fat and the Brain: What 16 Years of Data Actually Show
A study just landed in Nature Communications that reframes how to think about midlife weight loss and brain health. Researchers followed 533 adults for up to 16 years after they completed lifestyle interventions, then scanned their brains and tested their cognition. The finding: it wasn't weight loss that predicted slower brain atrophy and better cognitive scores years later. It was sustained loss of visceral fat specifically.
This matters because most people, and most doctors, still track weight on a scale. The number on the scale lumps together fat, muscle, water, and where on the body the fat actually sits. The new data suggests that for brain health, where the fat is matters more than how much of it there is.
What the study found
The research, called the Follow-Interventions-Trials (FIT) project, pulled participants from four earlier 18 to 24 month lifestyle randomized trials. The average age at follow-up was 61. Each participant had abdominal MRI, brain MRI, and Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) testing 5 to 16 years after their original intervention.
Three findings stood out. Lower long-term visceral fat exposure, calculated across baseline, post-intervention, and follow-up, independently predicted higher cognitive scores. Visceral fat loss during the intervention period predicted higher brain volumes years later, independent of overall weight loss. And among the participants who had three full sets of scans over the years, lower long-term visceral fat was associated with a slower rate of brain atrophy.
The same patterns were not observed for subcutaneous fat, the kind that sits under the skin and shows up on a pinch test. Visceral fat, the deeper fat surrounding the organs, was the variable that mattered.
The proposed mechanism is glycemic. Visceral fat is metabolically active. It secretes inflammatory signals and contributes to insulin resistance. Both of these are increasingly understood as drivers of cognitive decline. When visceral fat goes down, glycemic control improves, and the brain appears to benefit downstream.
Why this changes how we think about midlife weight
Most people who decide to lose weight in their fifties do not distinguish between subcutaneous fat, visceral fat, and muscle. Many lose all three. Losing muscle in midlife is a problem on its own. Losing subcutaneous fat without losing visceral fat is largely cosmetic. Losing visceral fat appears to be the part that actually protects the brain.
This also reframes "skinny fat." A person can have a body mass index in the normal range and still carry significant visceral fat. The scale will not flag this. A waist measurement, a DEXA scan, or abdominal imaging will.
For anyone in their 40s, 50s, or 60s thinking about brain health, the practical question is no longer "should I lose weight." It is "what is my visceral fat doing, and what is actually moving it."
What you can do
Three things tend to move visceral fat without requiring dramatic restriction.
The first is reducing refined carbohydrates and added sugars. Visceral fat is more responsive to insulin signaling than subcutaneous fat. Lowering postprandial glucose spikes is associated with reduced visceral fat over time.
The second is consistent moderate-intensity movement, especially after meals. A 10 to 15 minute walk after eating blunts the post-meal glucose curve. Repeated over months, this contributes meaningfully to visceral fat reduction.
The third is strength training, which we covered last week. Muscle is the primary site of glucose disposal in the body. More muscle means better glycemic control, which means less visceral fat accumulation.
The biomarkers that respond, and the ones we look at first with members, are HbA1c (your average blood sugar over three months), fasting insulin, and the broader metabolic panel that looks at lipids and liver function. These shift before the scale shifts. They tell you whether the metabolic conditions that drive visceral fat are improving.
The bottom line
The next time someone tells you to lose weight for your brain, the more useful version of that advice is to lose visceral fat for your brain. The number on the scale was always a poor proxy for what is happening inside the body. The new research makes that clearer.
If you are already a BetterBrain member, your most recent HbA1c, fasting insulin, and metabolic panel results are in your dashboard. Worth a fresh look in light of this.
If you have not yet started, these markers are part of the BetterBrain Essentials Panel we look at first.
Strength Training and Brain Health: What 6 Months of Lifting Does to Your Hippocampus
Strength Training and Brain Health: What 6 Months of Lifting Does to Your Hippocampus
Aerobic exercise gets most of the brain-health attention. The cardiovascular benefits are well-documented, the GPLD1 pathway connecting movement to blood-brain barrier repair is real, and almost every brain health protocol recommends it.
But a body of research has been quietly building on a different type of exercise entirely. And a comprehensive 2025 network meta-analysis just made the case for strength training impossible to ignore.
What the research found
The analysis, published in Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, pulled data from dozens of randomized controlled trials involving cognitively healthy older adults. When researchers compared aerobic exercise, resistance training, mind-body practices like yoga, and combined programs for their effect on cognitive function, resistance training produced the strongest overall effect on global cognition. The effect size was considered moderate to large in cognitive research, where meaningful improvements are notoriously difficult to achieve.
A parallel 2025 systematic review went further. It examined actual brain imaging alongside cognitive testing. The findings: at least two resistance training sessions per week, sustained for at least six months, were associated with measurable increases in cortical thickness in two critical brain regions.
The hippocampus, your brain's primary memory formation center. And the prefrontal cortex, involved in planning, complex reasoning, and self-control. These are precisely the regions most vulnerable to aging and most associated with early cognitive decline.
These weren't just improvements in test scores. These were structural changes in brain tissue, visible on MRI scans. Six months of consistent strength training literally changed the physical structure of participants' brains.
How it works
The mechanisms connecting resistance training to brain health are distinct from aerobic exercise benefits, which is exactly why both matter.
When your skeletal muscles contract under load, they secrete signaling proteins called myokines into your bloodstream. One well-studied myokine, irisin, crosses the blood-brain barrier and has been shown to increase new brain cell formation and reduce neuroinflammation in research models.
Resistance training also improves insulin sensitivity in your muscles, contributing to better metabolic health throughout your body. Given that brain insulin resistance is increasingly understood as a central mechanism in Alzheimer's disease, this metabolic pathway from strength training to brain protection isn't minor.
The exact dose the research supports
Frequency: At least two sessions per week. Some studies suggest three sessions produce greater effects, following a dose-response pattern.
Duration: Six months minimum for structural brain changes to appear on imaging. This isn't a quick fix. It's a sustained practice.
Intensity: Moderate intensity works best, approximately 50 to 70 percent of your maximum. In practical terms, this means lifting a weight you can complete 8 to 12 controlled repetitions with, where the final 2 to 3 reps require genuine effort.
Going through the motions with very light resistance doesn't appear to produce the same stimulus. The dose matters as much as the activity itself.
You don't need a gym membership to start. Bodyweight exercises (squats, push-ups, lunges), resistance bands, or even filled water bottles work. The goal is progressive challenge over time, gradually increasing difficulty as you get stronger.
Tracking whether it's working
Several markers respond to consistent strength training and give you objective evidence the work is paying off.
Insulin sensitivity: Resistance training improves how your cells respond to insulin. You can track this through fasting insulin and HbA1c, which shows your average blood sugar control over three months. Better insulin sensitivity is associated with better cognitive function.
Inflammatory markers: Consistent strength training reduces systemic inflammation. hs-CRP and homocysteine levels respond, giving objective evidence of the anti-inflammatory effect.
Metabolic health markers: Strength training improves multiple metabolic markers including glucose control, lipid profiles like VLDL-C, and overall metabolic function. These improvements happen through muscle-mediated pathways that complement what aerobic exercise does.
Seeing these numbers move is concrete evidence that the effort is producing real change.
The case for combining aerobic and resistance training
Aerobic exercise works through the GPLD1 pathway, where your liver releases protective signals during movement that repair your blood-brain barrier.
Strength training works through entirely different pathways: muscle-derived signaling proteins, improved insulin sensitivity, and hormonal changes that protect brain structure.
These are complementary, not redundant. Research on combined programs shows that doing both produces greater cognitive benefit than either alone. If you're already doing aerobic exercise regularly, adding just two strength sessions per week hits the research-backed minimum.
If you're curious where your insulin sensitivity, inflammation, and metabolic markers stand, BetterBrain's Blueprint testing covers all of them in a single panel, plus 40 more brain health markers.
Cholesterol and Your Brain: What You Actually Need to Know
Cholesterol gets a bad rap. For decades, we've heard that it clogs arteries and causes heart attacks. But here's what doesn't make headlines: your brain contains 25% of your body's total cholesterol despite making up only 2% of your body weight. As lipid expert Dr. Tom Dayspring puts it, "Cholesterol is almost certainly the most important molecule in the brain."
So how can cholesterol be both necessary for brain function and a major cardiovascular risk factor? The answer lies in understanding where cholesterol is, how it gets there, and what form it takes.
In this post, we're taking a deeper dive into cholesterol than usual. We'll break down what your cholesterol numbers actually mean, why the standard tests miss critical information, and how the cholesterol story connects cardiovascular health to brain health.
The Basics: What Is Cholesterol?
Cholesterol is a fatty molecule that serves critical functions throughout your body. It forms the outer layer of every cell, helps produce hormones (including testosterone, estrogen, and cortisol), enables vitamin D synthesis, and supports nerve function. Without cholesterol, you simply couldn't survive.
But there's an important distinction to make: "cholesterol" isn't one thing.
When we talk about cholesterol in the blood versus cholesterol in the brain, we're really talking about two separate systems that operate differently.
Blood cholesterol: Cholesterol travels through your bloodstream inside particles called lipoproteins. These particles come in different types:
- LDL (low-density lipoprotein): Often called "bad" cholesterol, LDL particles deliver cholesterol to cells throughout your body
- HDL (high-density lipoprotein): Called "good" cholesterol, HDL particles help transport excess cholesterol back to the liver
- VLDL (very low-density lipoprotein): Primarily transports triglycerides but also carries some cholesterol
- IDL (intermediate-density lipoprotein): A transition form between VLDL and LDL
Brain cholesterol: Your brain makes its own cholesterol and keeps it completely separate from blood cholesterol. The blood-brain barrier prevents cholesterol in your bloodstream from entering your brain. This means the cholesterol circulating in your blood and the cholesterol in your brain are part of two entirely different pools.
The Heart Risk: Why apoB Matters More Than LDL?
What is apoB?
ApoB (apolipoprotein B) is a protein found on the surface of all atherogenic (plaque-forming) particles, including LDL, VLDL, IDL, and Lp(a). Each particle contains exactly one apoB molecule, making apoB a direct count of total potentially harmful particles.
Why apoB beats LDL cholesterol?
Traditional LDL-C (LDL cholesterol) tells you how much cholesterol LDL carries, but not how many particles you have. Two people can have identical LDL-C but vastly different particle numbers and risk levels.
- Many small LDL particles (each carrying less cholesterol) = "normal" LDL-C but high particle count and high risk
- Fewer large LDL particles (each carrying more cholesterol) = higher LDL-C but fewer particles and potentially lower risk
ApoB counts every atherogenic particle regardless of size. This makes it the best single marker for cardiovascular risk.
What is the triglyceride connection?
Elevated triglycerides (often from insulin resistance) fundamentally alter lipid metabolism:
- VLDL becomes triglyceride-enriched
- Particles get remodeled into small, dense LDL
- ApoB particle count increases
- You can have "normal" LDL-C but dangerously high apoB
This is why metabolic health is critical for cardiovascular risk.
The Brain Side: Why Cholesterol Is Essential
While high apoB threatens your heart, brain cholesterol is absolutely essential.
Critical brain functions
- Myelin formation: Insulates nerve fibers for rapid signal transmission
- Synapse formation: Creates and maintains neuron connections
- Cell membranes: Every neuron needs cholesterol-rich membranes
- Neurotransmitter release: Regulates how neurons communicate
How the brain gets cholesterol
Astrocytes (brain cells) produce cholesterol and package it into brain-specific lipoproteins containing apoE (apolipoprotein E) for delivery to neurons.
The APOE genetic factor
- APOE ε2: Protective against Alzheimer's, better cholesterol handling
- APOE ε3: Most common, considered neutral
- APOE ε4: Increases Alzheimer's risk, disrupts brain cholesterol metabolism
Research from MIT shows APOE4 is associated with brain cells accumulating cholesterol abnormally rather than using it to make healthy myelin. This isn't about too much or too little cholesterol, but how effectively the brain uses it.
Cholesterol and Alzheimer's
Brain regions vulnerable to Alzheimer's show signatures of being "super cholesterol-hungry," as researchers describe it, constantly trying to produce and absorb cholesterol. When this system fails (especially with APOE4), neurodegeneration may follow.
The Paradox Resolved
In the bloodstream: High apoB drives atherosclerosis. Particles penetrate artery walls, oxidize, trigger inflammation, form plaques. Goal: Keep apoB low (<60-80 mg/dL) to prevent cardiovascular disease.
In the brain: The brain makes its own cholesterol independently. Blood cholesterol can't cross the blood-brain barrier. Goal: Support healthy brain cholesterol metabolism through metabolic health.
This separation means lowering blood cholesterol doesn't starve your brain. Your brain continues making what it needs regardless of apoB levels.
The Bottom Line
Cholesterol isn't inherently good or bad; context is everything. In your bloodstream, high apoB poses serious cardiovascular and cerebrovascular risks. In your brain, cholesterol is essential for structure and function.
The good news: these systems are separate. Lowering apoB to protect your heart doesn't harm your brain. In fact, protecting your cardiovascular system through better lipid management, metabolic health, and inflammation control also protects your brain.
Understanding which biomarkers matter empowers informed decisions. It's not about fearing cholesterol; it's about managing it intelligently.
Want to Understand Your Complete Lipid Profile and Genetic Risk?
BetterBrain includes apoB, advanced lipid testing, metabolic biomarkers, and APOE genetic testing for a complete cardiovascular and brain health picture.
Dietary Defenders: Prebiotic Fibers in Alzheimer's Prevention
As Alzheimer's disease continues to impact millions globally, the scientific community is increasingly focusing on the gut-brain axis. This complex communication network, which links the gastrointestinal tract and the brain, could play a major role in preventing cognitive decline. Recent discoveries1 have shown that gut microbiota might affect everything from brain development to behavior to disease states, and researchers are starting to explore how the gut-brain axis can influence dementia risk.
Exploratory study: A closer look at fiber's impact on aging brains
The School of Life Course & Population Sciences at King’s College London spearheaded a pivotal double-blind study2 (the same type of study as used for clinical trials) with participants over 60 years old. Their research aimed to uncover the cognitive effects of consuming prebiotic fibers compared to a placebo.
Fiber fuels cognitive fortitude
Like any organism, the components making up the gut microbiome need food to survive. One source of nutrients for them is prebiotic fibers, such as inulin and fructooligosaccharides (FOS), both of which were the focus of the King’s College study. The researchers found that participants who took prebiotic supplements had more of one species of healthy bacteria called Bifidobacterium in their gut. This species has previously been linked to better cognitive performance, and indeed the participants who took supplements showed improved cognitive function scores through the same memory tests that are used as an early indicator of Alzheimer’s disease.
Why is this happening?
The composition of the gut microbiome has drastically changed over human history. Advances in agriculture, industrialization and globalization may have caused a decrease in gut microbial diversity, which has been associated with worse health outcomes. In particular, a review of multiple studies1 suggests that changes in the microbiome can lead to behavioral changes. In another study3 comparing 25 patients diagnosed with Alheimer’s disease to 25 healthy individuals, those with Alzheimer’s were found to have reduced gut microbial diversity.
Keeping an eye on your intake
Let’s get specific. Women should aim to consume 21-25g of fiber per day. Men should aim for 30-38g4. Here is a list of some common fiber-dense foods to consider adding into your diet.
A promising path to cognitive health
Emerging evidence connecting dietary habits, gut microbiota, and brain function highlights a novel approach to combat Alzheimer’s disease. The gut-brain axis is still a new area of research - there is much we don’t know, and many researchers around the world are investigating the different ways in which the microbiome influences our brain health. Such studies not only pave the way for innovative therapeutic avenues but also emphasize the profound impact our diet can have on mental and overall health.
Putting the science in action
- Eat enough fiber each day to make sure you are nourishing your gut microbiome. Women should strive for 21-25g daily, while men should aim for 30-38g.
- Learn more about the importance of your gut health on your brain and body through the Peter Attia Drive podcast.some text
- Episode #215 goes in-depth on the GI system - skip to 34:30 for ways in which the gut and brain communicate, and to 1:55:00 for ways to promote your gut microbiome using your nutrition.
- Episode #283 discusses the microbiome specifically - learn more about the importance of fiber at 38:30 and about the gut-brain axis at 50:15.
The Role of Homocysteine in Dementia Risk
Homocysteine is a naturally occurring amino acid in our body and can spike acutely, such as after staying up all night. In healthy people, homocysteine naturally clears over time. However, at chronic high concentrations, it is associated with various health issues, including heart disease and, notably, cognitive decline. In fact, having blood homocysteine levels over 14 μmol/L is associated with a nearly doubled risk of dementia1. Luckily, there are simple ways to lower your homocysteine levels - most notably B vitamin supplementation.
Brain Atrophy, Aging and Cognitive Decline
As we age, our brains naturally undergo some amount of atrophy, or decrease in size, which involves a loss of neurons and their connections. This process is accelerated in Alzheimer’s dementia2. With a lower brain volume and fewer neural connections, it’s easy to see how atrophy can lead to lasting cognitive impairment. One factor that has a strong influence on the rate of brain atrophy is blood concentration of homocysteine. Several studies3,4 link elevated homocysteine levels are linked with a heightened risk of dementia.
The role of B vitamins
You won’t often hear us say this, but you have an ace up your sleeve in fighting homocysteine: B vitamins. One study2 investigated the effects of using B6, B9, and B12 vitamins over the course of two years, using the same level of rigor that is commonly used for drug clinical trials.
On average, people who used B vitamins lowered their overall homocysteine levels by 32% and experienced a 30% slower rate of brain atrophy. In fact, those who started with very high levels of blood homocysteine (> 14 μmol/L) managed to slow their atrophy rate by 53%. In other words, this study suggests that the simple act of taking a daily B vitamin supplement can cut your dementia risk in half.
The type of B vitamin matters
There are two factors to consider when selecting a B vitamin supplement. The first is what vitamins you are getting. The study mentioned above specifically tested the use of vitamins B6, B9 (also known as folate), and B12. It’s important to get a mix of both. The second is whether or not you select the methylated form of the vitamins. Methylation is a biological process that makes the vitamins more available for your body to use. In other words, the same dose of methyl-B vitamins will be more strongly absorbed than normal B vitamins. This is especially important for people with mutations in the MTHFR gene, since they otherwise have trouble absorbing B vitamins. We generally recommend taking methylated B vitamins since they are perfectly safe, but if you are sensitive to overmethylation, you may want to consider regular B vitamins to avoid side effects like headaches, anxiety, or irritability.
Broader Implications for Dementia Prevention
Homocysteine is a critically important risk factor for dementia. Not only does it accelerate brain atrophy, it also aggravates other conditions through inflammation and oxidative stress. Thankfully, B vitamins are an extremely effective tool to lower homocysteine levels. While there are many other ways of managing your homocysteine levels, most notably through diet, exercise, and stress management, B vitamins are a low-effort high-impact way to keep your brain atrophy at bay.
Get started on managing your homocysteine
- Measure your blood homocysteine levels to learn where you stand. Homocysteine is one of the 50+ biomarkers tested during your BetterBrain Essentials blood draw.
- Consider using B vitamin supplements to lower your homocysteine, ideally below 9 μmol/L. We recommend Pure Encapsulations MethylAssist, but make sure you use an unmethylated alternative if you are sensitive to overmethylation.
- Learn more about homocysteine on the Peter Attia Drive episode on dementia. This episode covers many topics, so if you’re just interested in homocystine, skip ahead to 1:09:00.
Clearing the Air: How Pollution Influences Alzheimer's Risk
When you think of air pollution, respiratory disease is usually the first thing to come to mind. However, recent findings from the Emory Healthy Brain Study1 has begun to show that long-term exposure to tiny particles called PM2.5 has been associated with the accumulation of amyloid plaques in the brain, which is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease. While this doesn't prove that PM2.5 exposure leads to Alzheimer's, it suggests a potentially elevated risk, especially among those exposed to poor quality air over longer periods of time.
Air quality is typically measured by the amount of specific pollutants in the air. The Emory Healthy Brain Study looked at a type of pollutant called PM2.5, which is fine particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2.5 micrometers (about 30 times smaller than a human hair). These particles are so fine they can bypass the body's airway defenses and enter the bloodstream. Common sources of PM2.5 include vehicle emissions, industrial combustion, and natural occurrences like wildfires. Because the particles can enter the bloodstream, they can cause health issues that go beyond simple respiratory irritation, potentially affecting brain health and contributing to cognitive decline.
Key Findings from the Study
- Increased PM2.5 exposure is associated with worse results on Alzheimer’s pathology biomarkers: The study indicated that higher levels of PM2.5 exposure over one and three years are associated with lower concentrations of amyloid-beta 42 (Aβ42) in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Aβ42 is a biomarker whose decreased levels suggest an accumulation of amyloid plaques in the brain, which is a hallmark of Alzheimer’s dementia.
- Specific Focus on Traffic-Related PM2.5: While the study looked at both ambient (general environmental) and traffic-related PM2.5, the findings were particularly noteworthy for ambient PM2.5. This suggests that while traffic contributes significantly to PM2.5 levels, other sources of pollution also play a crucial role in influencing Alzheimer’s disease biomarkers.
- Implications for Alzheimer’s Risk: The research underscores that even PM2.5 below levels currently considered risky by environmental standards, there is a tangible increase in the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease. This calls for a reassessment of what is considered “safe” exposure to PM2.5, particularly for populations at risk of Alzheimer’s.
Reducing Exposure
Individuals living in high pollution areas can reduce their exposure by:
- Using air purifiers at home
- Avoiding outdoor activities when pollution levels are high
- Supporting clean air initiatives aimed at reducing emissions
Conclusion
The findings from Emory University’s research are a vital addition to our understanding of environmental factors in Alzheimer’s disease risk. They not only highlight the need for stricter air pollution controls but also suggest that everyday actions to reduce exposure to PM2.5 could be a feasible strategy for Alzheimer's prevention. As we continue to uncover more about the impact of our environment on health, it becomes increasingly clear that tackling air pollution is not just about preserving our planet—it's also about protecting our minds.